7  Music

This chapter contains variables related to musical ability or activity.

7.1 BAT: Beat Perception Test

The BAT records the ability of the students to recognize and evaluate a beat within a short music excerpt. Each music excerpt (Jazz, Rock or orchestral Pop) is played twice with added beep tones. The pupils have to decide in which version of the excerpt the beep tones are off the beat of the music.

var_name BAT.error BAT.score
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music
var_info_type test_score test_error
item_level_data FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core FALSE TRUE
analysis_set_extended FALSE TRUE
Number of items adaptive procedure, flexible length, currently 22 items
Response format 2-alternative forced choice

7.1.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=BAT

7.1.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items Rel Test Retest Sem
bat Beat Perception Test English 25 1.49840737645453
bat Beat Perception Test English 24 1.52160616331535
bat Beat Perception Test English 23 1.4838908806427
bat Beat Perception Test English 22 1.545
bat Beat Perception Test English 21 1.537
bat Beat Perception Test English 20 0.61 1.586
bat Beat Perception Test English 19 1.603
bat Beat Perception Test English 18 1.628
bat Beat Perception Test English 17 1.671
bat Beat Perception Test English 16 1.659
bat Beat Perception Test English 15 1.679

7.1.3 Reference

Harrison, P. M. C., & Müllensiefen, D. (2018). Development and Validation of the Computerised Adaptive Beat Alignment Test (CA-BAT). Scientific Reports, 8, 12395. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-30318-8 ### Link to Original Publication https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-30318-8

7.2 CCM: Concurrent Musical Activities

This self-report questionnaire asks about pupils’ current musical activities (over the past three months). Eight binary items assess different musical activities (e.g., playing an instrument or making music in an ensemble). In addition, two 7-point rating scale items measure the intensity of recent musical activities. Additionally, the number of music lesson hours or music club hours per week is recorded.

var_name CCM CCM.weekly_num_school_music_lessons CCM.weekly_after_school_music_lessons
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music music
var_info_type self_report_score self_report_score self_report_score
item_level_data TRUE TRUE TRUE
analysis_set_core TRUE TRUE TRUE
analysis_set_extended TRUE TRUE TRUE
description general score CCM Additional variable: number of music lesson hours per week in school over the past three months. Additional variable: number of music club (music AG) hours per week at school over the past three months.
values “1” = 0 hours per week; “2” = 1 hour per week; “3” = 2 hours per week; “4” = 3 hours per week; “5” = 4 hours per week “1” = 0 hours per week; “2” = 1 hour per week; “3” = 2 hours per week; “4” = 3 hours per week; “5” = 4 hours per week
number of items 10 1 1
response format Binary checkboxes and 7-point rating scales 5-point rating scale 5-point rating scale

7.2.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=CCM

7.2.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items
ccm Concurrent Musical Activities English 10

7.2.3 Reference

Müllensiefen, D., Harrison, P., Caprini, F., & Fancourt, A. (2015). Investigating the importance of self-theories of intelligence and musicality for students’ academic and musical achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1702. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01702

7.3 EDT: Emotion Discrimination Test

The Emotion Discrimination Test measures the ability to discriminate emotions expressed in music. Participants listen to two versions of the same short melody and have to decide which one expresses a given emotional quality better.

Note that there is an adaptive version of the EDT available that replaced the earlier static version. The static 18-item version was used from test wave 4 (2018) to test wave 6 (2020) and the new adaptive version was used from test wave 7 (2021) onwards. The scores of the static and the adaptive version still need to be made fully equivalent using IRT equating techniques before the EDT can be used in any longitudinal analysis.

var_name EDT.score EDT.error EDT.type
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music meta
var_info_type test_score test_error aux
item_level_data FALSE FALSE is_no_scale
analysis_set_core TRUE FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE FALSE FALSE
number of items 18 (static version); Usually 20 trials (adaptive version)
response format 2-alternative forced choice

7.3.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=EDT

7.3.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items Rel Test Retest
edt Emotion Discrimination Test English 15
edt Emotion Discrimination Test English 16
edt Emotion Discrimination Test English 17
edt Emotion Discrimination Test English 18 0.69

7.3.3 References

MacGregor, C., & Müllensiefen, D. (2019). The Musical Emotion Discrimination Task: A New Measure for Assessing the Ability to Discriminate Emotions in Music. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01955.

MacGregor, C., Ruth, N. & Müllensiefen, D. (2023). Development and validation of the first adaptive test of emotion perception in music. Cognition and Emotion, 37(2), 284-302. DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2022.2162003

7.4 GMSI: Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index

The Gold-MSI is a questionnaire to record musical sophistication. It consists of 39 self-report items about musical abilities, skills and music-related behaviour.

var_name GMS.active_engagement GMS.emotions GMS.musical_training GMS.perceptual_abilities GMS.singing_abilities GMS.general
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic dynamic dynamic dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music music music music music
var_info_type self_report_score self_report_score self_report_score self_report_score self_report_score self_report_score
item_level_data TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
analysis_set_core TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
analysis_set_extended TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
description Is derived from the factors GMS.active_engagement, GMS.emotions, GMS.musical_training, GMS.perceptual_abilities, and GMS.singing_abilities.
number of items 9 6 7 9 7
response format 7-point rating scales 7-point rating scales 7-point rating scales 7-point rating scales 7-point rating scales

7.4.1 Additional Questions

var_name GMS.best_played_instrument GMS.start_age_instrument GMS.plays_instrument absolute_pitch
var_stat_dyn dynamic Static Static dynamic
var_content_group music Music Music music
var_info_type self_report_score self_report_score self_report_score self_report_score
item_level_data TRUE TRUE TRUE is_no_scale
analysis_set_core TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
analysis_set_extended TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
description Instrument that is played best; participants select the instrument from a predefined dropdown list (including “Other” and “I don’t play an instrument). Age at which the participant started playing the instrument. Indicates whether the participant plays an instrument at all. This is derived from the starting age of instrument playing; the information is also collected in best_played_instrument and must be cross-checked. Indicates whether the student has absolute pitch.
values Age start an instrument “0” = no absolute pitch; “1” = absolut pitch
r_rule_static 1) Use mode of distribution 2) Use median of distribution

7.4.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items Rel Cronbach Alpha Rel Macdonald Omega
gms Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index English 39
gms GMS - General English 18 0.92 0.93
gms GMS - Active Engagement English 9 0.87 0.87
gms GMS - Emotions English 6 0.79 0.79
gms GMS - Musical Training English 7 0.9 0.91
gms GMS - Perceptual Abilities English 9 0.87 0.87
gms GMS - Singing Abilities English 7 0.87 0.87
gms Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index German 39
gms GMS - General German 18 0.91 0.91
gms GMS - Active Engagement German 9 0.8 0.81
gms GMS - Emotions German 6 0.72 0.73
gms GMS - Musical Training German 7 0.88 0.89
gms GMS - Perceptual Abilities German 9 0.84 0.83
gms GMS - Singing Abilities German 7 0.84 0.85

7.4.3 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=GMS

7.4.4 Reference

Müllensiefen, D., Gingras, B., Musil, J., & Stewart, L. (2014). The musicality of non-musicians: An index for assessing musical sophistication in the general population. PloS One, 9, e89642. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089642

7.5 HPT: Harmonic Progression Perception Test

The HPT measures the ability to identify where two four-chord harmonic progressions differ. The progressions are both four chords long and differ in exactly one chord.

var_name HPT.score HPT.error
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music
var_info_type test_score test_error
item_level_data FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE FALSE
number of items adaptive procedure, flexible length, currently 20 items
response format 4-alternative forced choice response format

7.5.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=HPT

7.5.2 Reference

Eitel, M., Ruth, N., Harrison, P., Frieler, K., & Müllensiefen, D. (2024). Perception of chord sequences modelled with Prediction by Partial Matching, Voice-leading distance, and Pitch-Class Spectral Similarity: A new approach for testing individual differences in harmony perception. Music & Science 7.

7.6 MHE: Musical Home Environment

This questionnaire records the degree of musical activities within the home environment of the pupils as well as the parental support for musical and school activities.

var_name MHE.general_score
var_stat_dyn dynamic
var_content_group music
var_info_type self_report_score
item_level_data TRUE
analysis_set_core TRUE
analysis_set_extended TRUE
number of items 7
response format 2 items with binary checkboxes and 5 items with a 4-point ratings scale

7.6.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=MHE

7.6.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items
mhe Musical Home Environment English 7

7.6.3 Reference

Müllensiefen, D., Harrison, P., Caprini, F., & Fancourt, A. (2015). Investigating the importance of self-theories of intelligence and musicality for students’ academic and musical achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1702. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01702

7.7 MDI: Melodic Discrimination

This melody discrimination test measures the ability to discriminate similar but slightly altered melodies from each other. Each item consists of three versions of the same melody. The three versions are in different keys and, additionally, in one of the versions a few notes have been changed. The task is to name the version with the altered notes.

var_name MDI.score MDI.error
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music
var_info_type test_score test_error
item_level_data FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core TRUE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE FALSE
number of items adaptive procedure, flexible length, currently 18 items
response format 3-alternative forced choice

7.7.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=MDT

7.7.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items Rel Test Retest Sem
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 12 1.479
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 13 1.498
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 14 1.544
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 15 1.55
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 16 1.539
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 17 1.553
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 18 0.754 1.431
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 19 1.514641
mdt Melody Discrimination Test English 20 1.518486

7.7.3 Reference

Harrison, P. M. C., Collins, T., & Müllensiefen, D. (2017). Applying modern psychometric techniques to melodic discrimination testing: Item response theory, computerised adaptive testing, and automatic item generation. Scientific Reports, 7, 425. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-03586-z

7.8 MPT: Mistuning Perception Test

The MPT measures the ability to recognize if the pitch of the singing voice sounds right or wrong in relation to the background music. Each music excerpt is played twice and in one of the examples the pitch level of the singing voice has been moved up or down. The task is to identify this wrong-sounding version.

var_name MPT.score MPT.error
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music
var_info_type test_score test_error
item_level_data FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core TRUE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE FALSE
number of items adaptive procedure, flexible length, currently 22 items
response format 2-alternative forced choice

7.8.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=MPT

7.8.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items Rel Test Retest Sem
mpt Mistuning Perception Test English 15 -1.799
mpt Mistuning Perception Test English 16 -1.93
mpt Mistuning Perception Test English 17 -1.955
mpt Mistuning Perception Test English 18 -1.972
mpt Mistuning Perception Test English 19 -2.066
mpt Mistuning Perception Test English 20 -2.107
mpt Mistuning Perception Test English 21 -2.121
mpt Mistuning Perception Test English 22 0.595 -2.203

7.8.3 Reference

Larrouy-Maestri, P. L., Harrison, P. M. C., Walker, D., & Müllensiefen, D. (2017). A new test of the ability to detect mistuning in real music. In E. van Dyck (Ed.), 25th anniversary conference of the European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music: Book of abstracts. Ghent, Belgium.

7.9 PIAT: Pitch Imagery Arrows Test

The PIAT assesses the ability to successfully imagine musical tones from a visual prompt.

var_name PIAT.score PIAT.error
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music
var_info_type test_score test_error
item_level_data FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE FALSE
number of items 25
response format 2-alternative forced choice

7.9.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=PIT

7.9.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items Rel Test Retest Sem
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 15 -1.274
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 16 -1.223
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 17 -1.237
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 18 -1.293
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 19 -1.293
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 20 -1.322
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 21 -1.292
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 22 -1.311
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 23 -1.379
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 24 -1.342
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 25 0.65 -1.425
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 26 -1.4127088
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 27 -1.4196422
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 28 -1.4865797
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 29 -1.3856266
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 30 -1.4404866
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 31 -1.4660105
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 32 -1.4270278
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 33 -1.5043248
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 34 -1.4436263
pit Pitch Imagery Arrows Test English 35 -1.4938495

7.9.3 Reference

Gelding, R. W., Harrison, P. M. C., Silas, S., et al. (2021). An efficient and adaptive test of auditory mental imagery.

7.10 RAT: Rhythm Test

The Rhythm Ability Test (RAT) measures the ability to process and remember short musical rhythms with 4, 8 or 16 events. Participants listen to the rhythm and then have to select the one of four graphical representations that corresponds to the structure/factors of the rhythm. The RAT is based on the Musical Sequence Transcription Task (MSTT) introduced by Zuk et al. (2013) which was designed as pen and paper task. The RAT implements the same principles in an online interface and is based on an explanatory item response model that allows the construction of an adaptive task (MacGregor et al., in prep.)

var_name RAT.score RAT.error
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music
var_info_type test_score test_error
item_level_data FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE FALSE
number of items adaptive procedure, flexible length, currently 16 items
response format 4-alternative forced choice

7.10.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=RAT

7.10.2 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items Sem
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 8 -1.446
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 9 -1.51
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 10 -1.513
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 11 -1.587
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 12 -1.584
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 13 -1.649
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 14 -1.676
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 15 -1.682
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 16 -1.664
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 17 -1.687
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 18 -1.691
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 19 -1.749
rat Rhythm Ability Test English 20 -1.732

7.10.3 References

MacGregor, C., Forth, J., Frieler, K., & Müllensiefen, D. (in prep.). An adaptive test for assessing rhythmic perception abilities.

Zuk, J., Andrade, P. E., Andrade, O. V. C. A., Gardiner, M., & Gaab, N. (2013). Musical, language, and reading abilities in early Portuguese readers. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 288. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00288

7.11 MSA: Musical Scene Analysis Test

The musical scene analysis test measures the ability to identify a single instrument in a stereo mix of multiple instruments. Participants listen first to the target instrument playing on its own and subsequently to a mix of several instruments where the target is part of the mix or not.

var_name MSA.score MSA.error
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music
var_info_type test_score test_error
item_level_data FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE FALSE
number of items adaptive procedure, flexible length, currently 20 items
response format 2-alternative forced choice

7.11.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=MSA

7.11.2 Reference

Hake, R., Bürgel, R., Nguyen, N., Greasley, A., Müllensiefen, D., & Siedenburg, K. (2023). Development of an adaptive test of musical scene analysis abilities for normal-hearing and hearing-impaired listeners. Behavior Research Methods. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02279-y

7.12 BDT: Beat Drop Test

The Beat Drop Test (BDT) measures the ability to perceive the musical beat in pieces of music, to represent it cognitively, and to compare it with an external metrical input. Unlike the BAT, the BDT uses a paradigm in which the external metrical input is not presented simultaneously with the musical input, so that participants must rely primarily on cognitive representations of the musical beat rather than on sensory comparisons.

var_name BDT.score BDT.error
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music
var_info_type test_score test_error
item_level_data FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE FALSE
number of items 25
response format 1-AFC (is a probe sound on or off the beat of a previously heard music excerpt)

7.12.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=BDS

7.12.2 Reference

Cinelyte, U., Cannon, J., Patel, A., & Müllensiefen, D. (2022). Testing beat perception without sensory cues to the beat: the Beat-Drop Alignment Test (BDAT). Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 84, 2702-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-022-02592-2.

7.13 TPT: Timbre Perception Test

The TPT assesses the ability to make fine-grained perceptual decision based on timbre perception. It has three subtasks that target different sound parameters (shape of sound envelope, spectral flux and spectral centroid) from which an overall score can also be computed. The online test interface uses a production paradigm where users have to adjust a sound with a slider as closely as possible. The distance between the physical characteristics of the target sound and the matched sound created by the users is computed and indicates perceptual acuity.

var_name TPT.env_score TPT.flux_score TPT.cent_score TPT.general_score
var_stat_dyn dynamic dynamic dynamic dynamic
var_content_group music music music music
var_info_type test_score test_score test_score test_score
item_level_data FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_core FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
analysis_set_extended TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
description envelope spectral flux Spectral centroid
number of items 4 4 5
response format slider adjustment task. Participants are required to listen to a target tone and adjust a match tone as closely as possible to the target tone by moving a slider on a 1-dimensional scale. slider adjustment task. Participants are required to listen to a target tone and adjust a match tone as closely as possible to the target tone by moving a slider on a 1-dimensional scale. slider adjustment task. Participants are required to listen to a target tone and adjust a match tone as closely as possible to the target tone by moving a slider on a 1-dimensional scale. slider adjustment task. Participants are required to listen to a target tone and adjust a match tone as closely as possible to the target tone by moving a slider on a 1-dimensional scale.

7.13.1 Online Demo

https://shiny.gold-msi.org/longgold_demo/?test=TPT

7.13.2 Reference

Lee, H., & Müllensiefen, D. (2020). The Timbre Perception Test (TPT): A new interactive musical assessment tool to measure timbre perception ability. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics , 82, 3658-75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-020-02058-3.

7.14 DMT: Drum Machine Test

The Drum Machine Test measures the ability to reproduce a rhythmic pattern with a drum machine interface. Additionally, the test measures the learning curve of participants in the task. After each trial, participants receive feedback about the correctness of their input with a dynamically varying feedback mechanism.

7.15 MPS: Musical Preferences Assessment via Sound Clips

This is a listening test that captures musical preferences for each of the five factor of the MUSIC model (Rentfrow, Goldberg, & Levitin, 2011). A 15s excerpt from each of 25 unpublished tracks (5 for each factor) is rated on a 5-point rating scale that asks for liking of the track. The test was only used in 2015 and only raw data is available for this variable; therefore, it is not included in the LongGold dataset.

7.15.1 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items
mps Musical Preference Assessment via soundclips English 25

7.15.2 Reference

Rentfrow, P. J., Goldberg, L. R., & Levitin, D. J. (2011). The structure/factors of musical preferences: a five-factor model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 1139–1157. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022406

Ruth, N., & Müllensiefen, D. (2020). Associations Between Musical Preferences and Personality in Female Secondary School Students http://www.doc.gold.ac.uk/~mas03dm/papers/RuthMullensiefen_Psychomusicology_2020.pdf> Psychomusicology, 30(4), 202-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000267

7.16 SSS: Sound Similarity Sorting Test

The sound similarity test assesses the ability to make comparative judgments about very short (800 ms) music excerpts. The test requires participants to sort 16 short clips into 4 groups according to their perceived similarity. Only raw data is available for this variable; therefore, it is not included in the LongGold dataset.

7.16.1 Reliability

Name Name Full Language Number Items
sss Sound Similarity Sorting Test English 16

7.16.2 Reference

Musil, J., El-Nusairi, B., & Müllensiefen, D. (2013). Perceptual dimensions of short audio clips and corresponding timbre features. In M. Aramaki, M. Barthet, R. Kronland-Martinet, & S. Ystad (Eds.), LNCS sublibrary. SL 3, Information systems and application, incl. Internet/Web and HCI: Vol. 7900. From sounds to music and emotions: 9th international symposium, CMMR 2012, London, UK, June 19-22, 2012 : revised selected papers (pp. 214–227). Berlin: Springer.

7.17 SLT: Statistical Learning Test

The Statistical Learning Test is a dynamic learning test that measures participants ability to categorise melodies according to statistical regularities. Participants hear a melody that follows an artificial musical grammar and have to categorise the melody to one of two compositional styles. After each trial feedback about the correctness of the answer is given.